Iranian Economic Review

Iranian Economic Review

The Roles of Climate Change and Food Security on Fertility Rate: Evidence from MENA Countries

Document Type : Research Paper

Authors
Department of Economics, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran.
Abstract
Climate change and reduced food security can have devastating effects on society and especially human health. Therefore, this paper aims to investigate the impact of climate change and food security on the fertility rate in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) by applying the novel Method of Moments Quantile Regression (MMQR) technique over the period from 2000 to 2020. Historical temperature and precipitation are included in the study model as climatic factors, and the food production index is considered a proxy for food security. In addition, the impact of the female labor force participation rate and the female population on the fertility rate have been investigated. The results from the estimations suggest that food security, mean precipitation, and female population increase the fertility rate. The impact of mean precipitation increases with higher quantiles. In addition, mean temperature and female labor force participation rate significantly decrease the fertility rate in all quantiles. In addition to protecting women's rights to education and employment, policymakers in the region must adopt appropriate policies and laws to provide the conditions for them to have children. Also, since climate change is a severe threat to the region's countries, governments should adopt appropriate policies in the agricultural sector, such as preventing the production and export of water-intensive crops, to prevent food insecurity.
Keywords
Subjects

Adserà, A. (2004). Changing Fertility Rates in Developed Countries. The Impact of Labor Market Institutions. Journal of Population Economics, 17(1), 17–43. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s00148-003-0166-x.pdf.
Ahmed, K. J. (2022). Fertility Decisions of Women in the Context of Extreme Climate Events: A Study in Two Areas Hit by Cyclones and Floods in Bangladesh. Master's thesis, University of Adelaide, School of Social Sciences: Geography, Environment & Population.
Aker, J., & Lemtouni, A. (1999). A framework for Assessing Food Security in The Face of Globalization: The Case of Morocco. Agroalimentaria8(13), 13-26. Retrieved from https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/3229431.pdf .
Alola, A. A., & Kirikkaleli, D. (2021). Global Evidence of Time-Frequency Dependency of Temperature and Environmental Quality from a Wavelet Coherence Approach. Air Quality, Atmosphere & Health14, 581-589. Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/download/65067013/Air_Quality_Atmosphere_Health.pdf.
Alola, A. A., Bekun, F. V., & Sarkodie, S. A. (2019). Dynamic Impact of Trade Policy, Economic Growth, Fertility Rate, Renewable and Non-renewable Energy Consumption on Ecological Footprint in Europe. Science of the Total Environment685, 702-709. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969719321643.
Anser, M. K., Yousaf, Z., Khan, M. A., Voo, X. H., Nassani, A. A., Alotaibi, S. M., Qazi Abro, M. M., & Zaman, K. (2020). The Impacts of COVID-19 Measures on Global Environment and Fertility Rate: Double Coincidence. Air Quality, Atmosphere & Health, 13, 1083-1092. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11869-020-00865-z.pdf.
Atiqul Haq, S. M. (2013). Nexus Between Perception, Environment and Fertility: A Study on Indigenous People in Bangladesh. Sustainable Development, 21(6), 372–384. Retrieved from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/sd.515.
Autor, D. H., Dorn, D., & Hanson, G. H. (2019). When Work Disappears: Manufacturing Decline and the Falling Marriage Market Value of Young Men. American Economic Review: Insights, 1(2), 161–178. Retrieved from https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/Delivery.cfm?abstractid=2924739.
Bakhtsiyarava, M., Grace, K., & Nawrotzki, R. J. (2018). Climate, Birth Weight, and Agricultural Livelihoods in Kenya and Mali. American Journal of Public Health, 108(S2), S144–S150. Retrieved from https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/pdf/10.2105/AJPH.2017.304128.
Baliamoune‐Lutz, M. (2016). The Effectiveness of Foreign Aid to Women's Equality Organisations in the MENA. Journal of International Development28(3), 320-341. Retrieved from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/jid.3214.
Barreca, A., Deschenes, O., & Guldi, M. (2018). Maybe Next Month? Temperature Shocks and Dynamic Adjustments in Birth Rates. Demography, 55(4), 1269–1293. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13524-018-0690-7?TB_iframe=true&error=cookies_not_supported&code=c300cc7d-265e-4c86-8853-b28e7db7f06d.
Bearak, J. M., Popinchalk, A., Burke, K. L., & Anjur-Dietrich, S. (2021). Does the Impact of Motherhood on Women's Employment and Wages Differ for Women Who Plan their Transition into Motherhood? Demography, 58(4), 1301-1325. Retrieved from https://read.dukeupress.edu/demography/article-pdf/58/4/1301/934213/1301bearak.pdf.
Belhaj, F., & Soliman, A. (2021). MENA Has a Food Security Problem, But There Are Ways to Address It. World Bank Group.
Bloom, D. E., & Canning, D. (2000). The Health and Wealth of Nations. Science, 287(5456), 1207–1209. Retrieved from https://houdekpetr.cz/!data/public_html/papers/health_economics/Bloom%20Canning%202000.pdf.
Bohra-Mishra, P., Oppenheimer, M., & Hsiang, S. M. (2014). Nonlinear Permanent Migration Response to Climatic Variations but Minimal Response to Disasters. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(27), 9780–9785. Retrieved from https://www.pnas.org/doi/pdf/10.1073/pnas.1317166111.
Borders, A. E. B., Grobman, W. A., Amsden, L. B., & Holl, J. L. (2007). Chronic Stress and Low Birth Weight Neonates in a Low-Income Population of Women. Obstetrics & Gynecology, 109(2, Part 1), 331–338. Retrieved from https://journals.lww.com/greenjournal/FullText/2007/02000/Chronic_Stress_and_Low_Birth_Weight_Neonates_in_a.16.aspx.
Brown, C., & Lall, U. (2006). Water and Economic Development: The Role of Variability and a Framework for Resilience. In Natural resources forum, 30(4), 306-317. Retrieved from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1111/j.1477-8947.2006.00118.x.
Busetta, A., Mendola, D., and Vignoli, D. (2019). Persistent Joblessness and Fertility Intentions. Demographic Research, 40(8), 185–218. Retrieved from https://www.demographic-research.org/volumes/vol40/8/40-8.pdf.
Carrico, A. R., & Donato, K. (2019). Extreme Weather and Migration: Evidence from Bangladesh. Population and Environment, 41(1), 1–31. Retrieved from https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10188248.
Casey, G., Shayegh, S., Moreno-Cruz, J., Bunzl, M., Galor, O., & Caldeira, K. (2019). The Impact of Climate Change on Fertility. Environmental Research Letters14(5), 054007. Retrieved from https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ab0843/pdf.
Cazzola, A., Pasquini, L., & Angeli, A. (2016). The Relationship Between Unemployment and Fertility in Italy: A Time-series Analysis. Demographic Research, 34(1), 1–38. Retrieved from https://cris.unibo.it/bitstream/.
Chandio, A. A., Jiang, Y., Rehman, A., & Rauf, A. (2020). Short and Long-run Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture: Empirical Evidence from China. International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management12(2), 201-221. Retrieved from https://www.emerald.com/ijccsm/article-pdf/12/2/201/1147544/ijccsm-05-2019-0026.pdf.
Chen, M., Atiqul Haq, S. M., Ahmed, K. J., Hussain, A. B., & Ahmed, M. N. Q. (2021). The Link Between Climate Change, Food security and Fertility: The Case of Bangladesh. Plos one16(10), e0258196. Retrieved from https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/file?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0258196&type=printable.
Cheng, C., Ren, X., Dong, K., Dong, X., & Wang, Z. (2021). How Does Technological Innovation Mitigate CO2 Emissions in OECD Countries? Heterogeneous Analysis Using Panel Quantile Regression. Journal of Environmental Management280, 111818. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479720317436.
Cheng, C., Ren, X., Wang, Z., & Shi, Y. (2018). The Impacts of Non-fossil Energy, Economic Growth, Energy Consumption, and Oil Price on Carbon Intensity: Evidence from a Panel Quantile Regression Analysis of EU 28. Sustainability, 10(11), 4067. Retrieved from https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/10/11/4067.
Cho, H. (2020). Ambient Temperature, Birth Rate, and Birth Outcomes: Evidence from South Korea. Population and Environment, 41, 330-346. Retrieved from https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7089350/pdf/11111_2019_Article_333.pdf.
Choi, I. (2001). Unit Root Tests for Panel Data. Journal of international money and Finance, 20(2), 249-272. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0261560600000486.
Clifford, D., Falkingham, J., & Hinde, A. (2010). Through Civil War, Food Crisis and Drought: Trends in Fertility and Nuptiality in Post-Soviet Tajikistan. European Journal of Population / Revue Européenne de Démographie, 26(3), 325–350. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10680-010-9206-x.pdf.
Constantinidou, K., Hadjinicolaou, P., Zittis, G., & Lelieveld, J. (2020). Sensitivity of Simulated Climate Over the MENA Region Related to Different Land Surface Schemes in the WRF Model. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 141(3), 1431-1449. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s00704-020-03258-5.pdf.
De Waal, A., Taffesse, A., & Carruth, L. (2006). Child Survival During the 2002–2003 Drought in Ethiopia. Global Public Health, 1(2), 125–132. Retrieved from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17441690600661168.
Dehdar, F., Fuinhas, J. A., Karimi Alavijeh, N., Nazeer, N., & Zangoei, S. (2022). Investigating the Determinants of Carbon Emissions in the USA: A State-level Analysis. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 30(9), 23023-23034. Retrieved from https://drive.google.com/file/d/1-2s2LI3mXg1SpaVoTOTIsxG_x94zylu0/view.
DiClemente, K., Grace, K., Kershaw, T., Bosco, E., & Humphries, D. (2021). Investigating the Relationship between Food insecurity and Fertility preferences in Tanzania. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 25(2), 302-310. Retrieved from https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7878326/pdf/nihms-1646701.pdf.
Dogar, M. M., & Sato, T. (2018). Analysis of Climate Trends and Leading Modes of Climate Variability for MENA Region. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres123(23), 13-074. Retrieved from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2018JD029003.
Eberstadt, N. (1994). Demographic Shocks After Communism: Eastern Germany, 1989-93. Population and Development Review, 20(1), 137. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/2137633.
Ebi, K. L., Vanos, J., Baldwin, J. W., Bell, J. E., Hondula, D. M., Errett, N. A., Hayes, K., Reid, C. E., Saha, S., Spector, J., & Berry, P. (2021). Extreme Weather and Climate Change: Population Health and Health System Implications. Annual Review of Public Health, 42, 293-315. Retrieved from https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-012420-105026?crawler=true&mimetype=application/pdf.
Eissler, S., Thiede, B. C., & Strube, J. (2019). Climatic Variability and Changing Reproductive Goals in Sub-Saharan Africa. Global Environmental Change, 57, 101912. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095937801830712X.
El Bilali, H., Bassole, I. H. N., Dambo, L., & Berjan, S. (2020). Climate Change and Food Security. Agriculture and Forestry, 66(3), 197-210. Retrieved from https://www.agricultforest.ac.me/data/20200930-16%20EL%20BILALI%20et%20al%20SB-HE.pdf.
FAO. Global Report on Food Crisis. (2022) Rome: United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. Retrieved from https://www.wfp.org/publications/global-report-food-crisis-2017 .
Fathi, E. (2009). The Developments of the Iranian Population in the Last Decade. Program Weekly, 317(7), 23-30.
Fernández-Crehuet, J. M., Gil-Alana, L. A., & Barco, C. M. (2020). Unemployment and Fertility: A Long Run Relationship. Social Indicators Research, 152, 1177-1196. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11205-020-02468-8.
Filmer, D., & Pritchett, L. H. (2002). Environmental Degradation and the Demand for Children: Searching for the Vicious Circle in Pakistan. Environment and Development Economics, 7(1), 123–146. Retrieved from https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/environment-and-development-economics/article/environmental-degradation-and-the-demand-for-children-searching-for-the-vicious-circle-in-pakistan/AC3D91B022F21DFA4C824854E5B3E644.
Gauthier, A. H., & Hatzius, J. (1997). Family Benefits and Fertility: An Econometric Analysis. Population Studies, 51(3), 295–306. Retrieved from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/0032472031000150066.
GFCN. (2020). Global Food Crisis Network. Global Food Crisis Report, Retrieved from https://www.icpac.net/fsnwg/regional-focus-igad-member-states-2020-global-reportfood-crisis/.
Global Network Against Food Crises. (2022). Global Report on Food Crises. Retrieved from https://www.fightfoodcrises.net/en/.
Goldstein, J. R., Sobotka, T., & Jasilioniene, A. (2009). The End of" Lowest- Low" Fertility? Population and Development Review, 35(4), 663–699. Retrieved from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1728-4457.2009.00304.x.
Grace, K. (2017). Considering Climate in Studies of Fertility and Reproductive Health in Poor Countries. Nature Climate Change, 7(7), 479–485. Retrieved from https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate3318.pdf.
Grace, K., Lerner, A. M., Mikal, J., & Sangli, G. (2017). A Qualitative Investigation of Childbearing and Seasonal Hunger in Peri-urban Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. Population and Environment, 38(4), 369–380. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11111-016-0268-5.pdf.
Huang, J., Qin, D., Jiang, T., Wang, Y., Feng, Z., Zhai, J., ... & Su, B. (2019). Effect of Fertility Policy Changes on the Population Structure and Economy of China: from the Perspective of the Shared Socioeconomic Pathways. Earth's Future, 7(3), 250-265. Retrieved from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1029/2018EF000964.
Im, K. S., Pesaran, M. H., & Shin, Y. (2003). Testing for Unit Roots in Heterogeneous Panels. Journal of econometrics, 115(1), 53-74. Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/download/46981055/Testing_For_Unit_Roots_in_Heterogeneous_20160703-32282-8v3but.pdf.
Jaba, E., Balan, C., Roman, M., Viorica, D., & Roman, M. D. (2008). Employment Rate Prognosis on the Basis of the Development Environment Trend Displayed by Years-Clusters. Economic Computation and Economic Cybernetics Studies and Research, 3–4(20337), 123–135. Retrieved from https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/20337/1/MPRA_paper_20337.pdf.
Jaba, E., Chirianu, I., Balan, C., Robu, I.-B., & Roman, M. D. (2016). The Analysis of the Effect of Women’s Participation in the Labor Market on Fertility in European Union Countries Using Welfare State Models. Economic Computation and Economic Cybernetics Studies and Research, 50, 69–84. Retrieved from https://ipe.ro/RePEc/cys/ecocyb_pdf/ecocyb1_2016p69-84.pdf.
Jakada, A. H., & Mahmood, S. (2023). An Application of Quantile Regression on the Relationship between Economic Growth and the Quality of Environment in Selected African Countries. Iranian Economic Review27(2), 283-315. Retrieved from https://ier.ut.ac.ir/article_94026_f3496bca8fc4b3e7722313a7d39625dd.pdf.
Jegasothy, R., Sengupta, P., Dutta, S., & Jeganathan, R. (2021). Climate Change and Declining Fertility Rate in Malaysia: The Possible Connexions. Journal of Basic and Clinical Physiology and Pharmacology, 32(5), 911–924. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/.
Kan, I., Reznik, A., Kaminski, J., & Kimhi, A. (2023). The Impacts of Climate Change on Cropland Allocation, Crop Production, Output Prices and Social Welfare in Israel: A Structural Econometric Framework. Food Policy115, 102311. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306919222000872.
Kao, C. (1999). Spurious Regression and Residual-based Tests for Cointegration in Panel Data. Journal of Econometrics90(1), 1-44. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304407698000232.
Karimi Alavijeh, N., Salehnia, N., Salehnia, N., & Koengkan, M. (2022). The Effects of Agricultural Development on CO2 Emissions: Empirical Evidence from the Most Populous Developing Countries. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 25(10), 12011-12031. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10668-022-02567-1.
Kato, H. (2020). Does a Relationship Between Fertility and Labor Participation of Women Really Exist? Perspectives from Time Series Analysis. International Journal of Economic Policy Studies14(1), 3-23. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s42495-020-00033-2.
Kinnunen, P., Guillaume, J. H. A., Taka, M., D’Odorico, P., Siebert, S., Puma, M. J., Jalava, M., & Kummu, M. (2020). Local Food Crop Production Can Fulfil Demand for Less than One-third of the Population. Nature Food, 1(4), 229–237. Retrieved from https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20205001112/downloads/MPumaNatureFoodLocalReprint.pdf.
Klasen, S., & Lamanna, F. (2009). The Impact of Gender Inequality in Education and Employment on Economic Growth: New Evidence for a Panel of Countries. Feminist economics15(3), 91-132. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/.
Koengkan, M., Fuinhas, J. A., Radulescu, M., Kazemzadeh, E., Alavijeh, N. K., Santiago, R., & Teixeira, M. (2023). Assessing the Role of Financial Incentives in Promoting Eco-Friendly Houses in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area—Portugal. Energies16(4), 1839. Retrieved from https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/16/4/1839.
Koenker, R., & Bassett Jr, G. (1978). Regression Quantiles. Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society, 33-50. Retrieved from http://www.econ.uiuc.edu/~roger/NAKE/rqs78.pdf.
Kristensen, A. P., & Lappegård, T. (2022). Unemployment and Fertility: The Relationship Between Individual and Aggregated Unemployment and Fertility During 1994–2014 in Norway. Demographic Research, 46, 1037–1064. Retrieved from https://www.demographic-research.org/volumes/vol46/35/46-35.pdf.
Lal, S., Singh, R., Makun, K., Chand, N., & Khan, M. (2021). Socio-economic and Demographic Determinants of Fertility in Six Selected Pacific Island Countries: An Empirical study. PloS one16(9), e0257570. Retrieved from https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/file?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0257570&type=printable.
Lee, H., & Cheong, H.-W. (2018). Effects of Carbon Dioxide and Clouds on Temperature. Procedia Computer Science, 139, 95–103. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877050918318921/pdf?md5=234c26a1e81b1b2c3d8be4b113700204&pid=1-s2.0-S1877050918318921-main.pdf.
Machado, J. A., & Silva, J. S. (2019). Quantiles via Moments. Journal of Econometrics, 213(1), 145-173. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304407619300648.
Maddala, G. S., & Wu, S. (1999). A Comparative Study of Unit Root Tests with Panel Data and a New Simple Test. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and statistics, 61(S1), 631-652. Retrieved from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111%2F1468-0084.0610s1631.
McMichael, A. J., Woodruff, R. E., & Hales, S. (2006). Climate Change and Human Health: Present and Future Risks. The Lancet367(9513), 859-869. Retrieved from https://aquaticpath.phhp.ufl.edu/waterbiology/handouts/mcmichael_2006.pdf.
Mendola, P., & Ha, S. (2022). Beyond the Infant in Your Arms: Effects of Climate Change Last for Generations. Fertility and Sterility, 118(2), 224-229. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0015028222003855.
Moafi, F., Kazemi, F., Samiei Siboni, F., & Alimoradi, Z. (2018). The Relationship between Food Security and Quality of Life Among Pregnant Women. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 18(1), 319. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186/s12884-018-1947-2.pdf.
Myers, S. S., & Patz, J. A. (2009). Emerging Threats to Human Health from Global Environmental Change. Annual Review of Environment and Resources34, 223-252. Retrieved from https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.environ.033108.102650.
Najeeb, F., Morales, M., & Lopez-Acevedo, G. (2020). Analyzing Female Employment Trends in South Asia. SSRN Electronic Journal, 9157. Retrieved from https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/215352/1/dp12956.pdf.
Nawrotzki, R. J., Schlak, A. M., & Kugler, T. A. (2016). Climate, Migration, and the Local Food Security Context: Introducing Terra Populus. Population and Environment38, 164-184. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11111-016-0260-0.pdf.
Nébié, E. K. I., Ba, D., & Giannini, A. (2021). Food Security and Climate Shocks in Senegal: Who and Where Are the Most Vulnerable Households? Global Food Security, 29, 100513. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/am/pii/S2211912421000237.
Nicholson, C. F., Stephens, E. C., Kopainsky, B., Jones, A. D., Parsons, D., & Garrett, J. (2021). Food Security Outcomes in Agricultural Systems Models: Current Status and Recommended Improvements. Agricultural Systems, 188, 103028. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308521X20308891.
Ouedraogo, A., Tosun, M. S., & Yang, J. (2018). Fertility and Population Policy. Public Sector Economics, 42(1), 21-43. Retrieved from https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/287803.
Owoo, N. S., Agyei-Mensah, S., & Onuoha, E. (2015). The Effect of Neighbourhood Mortality Shocks on Fertility Preferences: A Spatial Econometric Approach. The European Journal of Health Economics, 16(6), 629–645. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10198-014-0615-3.pdf.
Paglialunga, E., Coveri, A., & Zanfei, A. (2022). Climate Change and Within-country Inequality: New Evidence from a Global Perspective. World Development159, 106030. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X22002200
Patel, S. A., & Surkan, P. J. (2016). Unwanted Childbearing and Household Food Insecurity in the United States. Maternal & Child Nutrition, 12(2), 362–372. Retrieved from https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4401646/pdf/nihms671911.pdf.
Puig-Barrachina, V., Rodríguez-Sanz, M., Domínguez-Berjón, M. F., Martín, U., Luque, M. Á., Ruiz, M., & Perez, G. (2020). Decline in Fertility Induced by Economic Recession in Spain. Gaceta Sanitaria, 34(3), 238–244. Retrieved from https://www.scielosp.org/pdf/gs/v34n3/0213-9111-gs-34-03-238.pdf.
Randell, H., Gray, C., & Shayo, E. H. (2022). Climatic Conditions and Household Food Security: Evidence from Tanzania. Food Policy112, 102362. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/am/pii/S0306919222001312.
Salehnia, N., Karimi Alavijeh, N., & Salehnia, N. (2020). Testing Porter and Pollution Haven Hypothesis via Economic Variables and CO2 Emissions: A Cross-country Review with Panel Quantile Regression Method. Environmental Science and Pollution Research27(25), 31527-31542. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11356-020-09302-1.
Sanz-Barbero, B., Linares, C., Vives-Cases, C., González, J. L., López-Ossorio, J. J., & Díaz, J. (2018). Heat Wave and the Risk of Intimate Partner Violence. Science of the Total Environment, 644, 413–419. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969718324446.
Schmitt, C. (2012). A Cross-national Perspective on Unemployment and First Births. European Journal of Population, 28(3), 303–335. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10680-012-9262-5.pdf.
Sellers, S., & Gray, C. (2019). Climate Shocks Constrain Human Fertility in Indonesia. World Development, 117, 357–369. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X19300282.
Shahbaz, M., Balsalobre-Lorente, D., & Sinha, A. (2019). Foreign Direct Investment–CO2 Emissions Nexus in Middle East and North African Countries: Importance of biomass energy consumption. Journal of Cleaner Production, 217, 603–614. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652619303099.
Shastri, V. (2015). The Changing Relationship Between Fertility and Female Employment. CMC Senior Theses Paper, 1094, Retrieved from https://scholarship.claremont.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2231&context=cmc_theses.
Simon, D. H. (2017). Exploring the Influence of Precipitation on Fertility Timing in Rural Mexico. Population and Environment, 38(4), 407–423. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11111-017-0281-3.pdf.
Sohail, A., Du, J., & Abbasi, B. N. (2023). Exploring the Interrelationship among Health Status, CO2 Emissions, and Energy Use in the Top 20 Highest Emitting Economies: Based on the CS-DL and CS-ARDL Approaches. Air Quality, Atmosphere & Health, 1-24. Retrieved from https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10072818/pdf/11869_2023_Article_1350.pdf.
Sun, Y., Bao, Q., Siao-Yun, W., ul Islam, M., & Razzaq, A. (2022). Renewable Energy Transition and Environmental Sustainability through Economic Complexity in BRICS Countries: Fresh Insights from Novel Method of Moments Quantile Regression. Renewable Energy184, 1165-1176. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960148121017225.
Szabo, S. (2016). Urbanisation and Food Insecurity Risks: Assessing the Role of Human Development. Oxford Development Studies, 44(1), 28–48. Retrieved from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/13600818.2015.1067292.
Tahir, M., Rashid, K., & Afridi, M. A. (2023). Is Trade Openness Relevant in Reducing Food Deficit? Evidence from African Countries. Iranian Economic Review27(1), 153-170. Retrieved from https://ier.ut.ac.ir/article_92463_cd28c5c278141c6652be1c9663ba60a4.pdf.
Waha, K., Krummenauer, L., Adams, S., Aich, V., Baarsch, F., Coumou, D., Fader, M., Hoff, H., Jobbins, G., Marcus, R., Mengel, M., M. Otto, I., Perrette, M., Rocha, M., Robinson, A., & Schleussner, C. F. (2017). Climate Change Impacts in the Middle East and Northern Africa (MENA) Region and their Implications for Vulnerable Population Groups. Regional Environmental Change, 17(6), 1623-1638. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10113-017-1144-2.pdf.
Winkler-Dworak, M. (2004). Food Security, Fertility Differentials and Land Degradation in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Dynamic Framework. Vienna Yearbook of Population Research, 1, 227–252. Retrieved from https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/106650/1/786325879.pdf.
World Bank. (2020). World Development Indicators.  Retrieved from http://www.worldbank.org/data/online databases/onlinedatabases.html .
Xie, W., Sheng, P., & Guo, X. (2015). Coal, Oil, or Clean Energy: Which Contributes Most to the Low Energy Efficiency in China? Utilities Policy, 35, 67–71. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0957178715300035.
Zhu, H., Duan, L., Guo, Y., & Yu, K. (2016). The Effects of FDI, Economic growth and Energy Consumption on Carbon Emissions in ASEAN-5: Evidence from Panel Quantile Regression. Economic Modelling58, 237-248. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264999316301262.
Zhu, X., Zhu, Z., Gu, L., Chen, L., Zhan, Y., Li, X., Zhu, X., Zhu, Z., Gu, L., Chen, L., Zhan, Y., Li, X., Huang, Ch., Xu, J., & Li, J. (2022). Prediction Models and Associated Factors on the Fertility Behaviors of the Floating Population in China. Frontiers in Public Health, 10, 977103. Retrieved from https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/public-health/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2022.977103/pdf.
Zittis, G., Hadjinicolaou, P., Klangidou, M., Proestos, Y., & Lelieveld, J. (2019). A Multi-model, Multi-scenario, and Multi-domain Analysis of Regional Climate Projections for the Mediterranean. Regional Environmental Change19(8), 2621-2635. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10113-019-01565-w?fbclid=IwAR1tJnqx3wfkAwScbM6BEhurPJAAQ2r3QxCQLw_nJPIK3kD6OLVdjEqyLpQ%3Ca%20href.
Zolfaghari, M., & Jariani, F. (2021). Food Security in the Middle Easte and North Africa (MENA). Munich Oersonal RePEe Archive, 105078. Retrieved from https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/105078/1/mpra_paper_105078.pdf.